主题：平凉现3900前中国“第一瓦”

　　“身无片瓦”是我国自喻处境贫寒的写照，但是瓦从何来，何时有瓦呢？无人得知。近日，平凉市灵台县出土的一片筒瓦，揭示早在3900年前，我国先民就已经居住了混泥瓦房。专家断言，这片普通而不平凡的瓦片，可能是我国历史的第一片瓦。

　　这片瓦是3900年前制作

　　“近日，有关专家将这瓦送到上海，用先进的仪器探测出瓦片内释放出的热能来自3900年前，依据专家的推测：这瓦片很可能是我国历史上最早的瓦片。”灵台县博物馆馆长王忠学告诉记者，瓦片又叫筒瓦，是手工制作成筒型，而后用木片或其他物件分割而成，外形虽然粗糙，但是工艺很是精致：瓦的两个末端一端有泥栓，一端有漕眼。搭建房屋排放瓦片时，漕栓勾挂，瓦片不仅不会在风雨中滑动，还更能防雨。

　　王忠学说，虽然这筒瓦已被鉴定是3900年前制作的，但是“中国最早的瓦片”的名称，可能还不属于它。

　　在灵台县博物馆，记者发现与这块3900年前的筒瓦并放的还有一组漕瓦。这组漕瓦由3片瓦组成，瓦呈凹形，两片并列，一片子瓦也是凹复扣中间，而两片母瓦的前后不仅有漕抽，还有一个用来栓连瓦片的窟窿。灵台县博物馆副馆长介绍，子瓦长14.6厘米、底宽3.7厘米、扣宽5.3厘米，而母瓦则长37.3厘米，底宽15.8厘米、扣宽5.3厘米，高约4厘米。从这组瓦片残留的凹凸不平的痕迹看来，瓦片的制作应该完全是用手捏制而成。“这瓦是2001年西屯乡桥村遗址出土的，从表面看来，瓦片工艺很精致，漕、眼、栓，母瓦以及子瓦都很特别，看上去像是手捏成形后，烧陶而成。”王忠学说，这漕瓦目前还没有作鉴定，但从外形、工艺以及瓦片上的痕迹看来，很可能比3900前的筒瓦还要早几百年。

　　这里还有早期的“水泥”

　　“灵台县有好多先民遗址，特别是一些半地穴式的遗址和大地湾遗址一模一样，座北向南、面河近水。是目前国内惟一发现有瓦片的先民遗址。”王忠学认为，瓦片的发现充分证明了早在3900年前，灵台就有一个很强大的部落盘踞，而这些瓦片，就是当时用于建筑宫殿的。“有一处田埂发掘的遗址更令人叹服：地面非常近似现代的水泥地面，平整坚硬且规范光滑。”对考古夙有情缘的灵台县政协文史委员杨生杰说，距地表面约2.5米，建筑工匠首先是在文化层上垫土、平整、碾打，这层处理层向房屋外延伸了2米多，然后用白灰、沙石、黏土等掺合成浆分两层抹平打光，厚约13厘米：下层约7厘米、合成浆较粗，上层是6厘米细细的合成浆沙粒。“从时间的跨度看，这是早期先民建筑用的水泥。”有专家介绍说，这遗址是先民建筑的实证，对考古研究先民的生活、居住文化以及生产水平、建筑工艺都具有很高的科学价值。目前虽然被列入省级文物保护单位，但是却被埋没在乡野多年，没有得到更好的保护和发掘。(我国最早的瓦与密字绳纹灰陶罐)

　　瓦的意识启蒙于4500年前

　　“我研究考古几十年，新石器时代的瓦片还是首次发现，从灵台出土的瓦片看来，很可能比齐家文化还要早几百年，属于陕西龙山文化类型。”平凉市原博物馆长刘玉林说，把灵台出土的瓦片归类龙山文化可能有争议，但事实证实瓦片和龙山文化极其相似。

　　在古玩店，刘玉林讲了一个关于“瓦”的故事。

　　1987年，刘玉林作为考古工作者在平凉市崇信县发掘了一个占地35平米的新石器时期先民居住遗址。屋顶已经完全塌陷，除了火坑、柱坑以及石器堆砌的储藏柜以外，还有8片陶片井然有序的叠放一起，就如同现在屋顶排放的瓦片。“这是4500年前先民的遗址，但是从几块叠放的陶片可以看出先民已经有了以瓦防雨的意识，这是瓦的意识的启蒙。”

　　刘玉林介绍，先民的房屋大多是半地穴式，圆柱支屋顶、屋壁则是用茅草涂泥而成。出土陶片带来的信息则是：下雨时，先民的屋顶漏雨了，然后，一些残破的陶片就成了挡雨的替代，于是就激发了先民生产“瓦”的意识。

　　可是，为什么出土的瓦片这样稀少呢？

　　面对这样的问题，一位考古专家说，瓦片在新石器时期没有大量的推广、普遍使用。至少可以说明当时社会不仅生产落后，使瓦片成为奢侈的用品，而且信息相当落后，使这种技术产品出现短暂的失传，但是有一点可以证明，发现瓦片的先民遗址，必定是部落首领的宫殿。

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Five Basics You Need to Get Rihanna's Style - Yahoo Voices - voices.yahoo.com

A few years ago Rihanna decided to trade in her ho hum R&B / pop princess longchamp laukut for something cooler. Now her style is edgier - a mixture of avant garde rock and roller meets dominatrix tomboy. Here's the 5 key pieces you need to get her style:
1. Leather Jackets
A main component of Rihanna's style is the leather jacket because it instantly makes even her simplest outfits look cool, and it also gives her feminine pieces a tough edge. Rihanna wears a ton of different leather jackets in various styles, but even her most basic jackets are never simple - they always have interesting details.
For instance, she often wears black leather jackets, but she's worn a bomber style with sleeves that unzip, another jacket was cropped and had a ruffled collar, and she's also donned a men's style bolero.
She also has worn several quilted black leathers. One version was collarless and cropped; another style was hip length and had pronounced slanted shoulders and a fur trim. And another quilted jacket was a fitted blazer that she wore as a dress.
Rihanna's also worn biker jackets in fun longchamp laukut . One had a black and white graphic pattern, another had a denim blue body with black sleeves and zipper details. She's also worn a bright yellow patent leather blazer with gray lapels and black trims.
So to get Rihanna's style go for styles that are hip length or higher, and look for cool ones like basic biker styles or those with interesting details like exaggerated shoulders, graphic patterns, bold colors or zippers. But also don't pass up on the daintier jackets that have quilting, ruffles, and no collars because the rest of Rhianna's wardrobe will make it cool.
2. Cool Boots
Another huge staple in Rihanna's wardrobe is her collection of boots.
Her mainstays are booties and ankle boots which give her outfits a bad-ass vibe. Rihanna wears them with any and everything from shorts, to leggings and jeans, to sexy mini dresses and skirts, and even laidback floral print summer dresses.
Buy a black leather bootie with cool details like perforations, fringe, longchamp laukut hardware, peep-toes or other cut-outs. Or get dominatrix style ankle boots that lace up.
For a softer look go for sheer ankle boots with bows like the black ones by Chanel that she wore. Or lighten up and get a pair of suede nude colored booties with fringe or an ankle boot with a fun leopard print.
When she's not rocking an ankle boot Rihanna prefers thigh highs that fall over the knee or right below it. She usually sticks to fitted ones in soft black or gray leather or slouchy styles in tan colored suede and black leather. She wears them with mini skirts and dresses, shorts, or leggings.
Her taller boots are usually more classic in style like a simple thigh high with a heel, or a flat riding boot. But she occasionally wears styles with fringe, gladiator details, tassels, perforated leather, or bondage style ones with thick laces.
3. Skinny Jeans
Another key to Rihanna's style is the skinny jean. She typically wears low rise versions in a standard dark blue rinse or black denim.
But this is Rihanna we're talking about so she also goes for edgier styles, like black leather jeans, acid wash high rise jeans, and ripped jeans in white or pale blue. Wear them with heels or booties.
4. Leggings
Another basic in Rihanna's style is her leggings. She doesn't wear longchamp laukut capri length she only wears those that hit at the ankle. Her mainstays are plain black leggings made from either sheer or shiny spandex, or leather. But she's also worn black ones with lace stripes running down the sides, ones with a gray lattice print, and spacey silver leggings.
On her casual days she'll throw a pair on with a leather jacket, long t-shirt and a pair of bright Nikes or she'll wear them with a long sweater and tall boots. For a sexier look she'll wear her leggings with a long blazer and heels, or with a corset underneath a man's oxford.
5. Tanks
While Rihanna's jackets and boots usually have fun details, for the most part she keeps her tops really simple and relaxed. She usually goes for a simple cotton tank (hip length or cropped versions) that she usually wears with a pair of jeans or leggings and a leather jacket.
She tends to wear plain ones in gray, black, or white. Occasionally though, she'll wear tanks with black and white stripes, or a white tank with a black graphic print or vice versa.